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The trade-off between clad and unclad dielectric materials follows a benefit analysis similar to that used for subtractive versus additive processing Copper-clad-based material is fabricated using standard practices familiar to most shops However, it innately generates more waste and has a higher cost due to the subtractive nature of the manufacturing sequence In addition, copper-clad materials demonstrate limitations in fine-line capability similar to those seen with standard manufacturing methods used today Unclad dielectrics require considerable resources for optimized plating of copper to achieve reliable and consistent copper peel strengths Unclad dielectrics and thin copper-clad dielectrics, however, gain in importance as the requirements for line and space geometries reach 75 m and required via sizes are lower than 75 m in diameter Figure 229 depicts the influence of base copper on the aspect ratio of a via.

The base copper increases the aspect ratio, making it more difficult to plate the via, and can cause issues with bottlenecking whereby the via plates shut at the top without sufficient plating in the bottom Other data show that thinner copper etches more uniformly, which helps the cause for controlled impedance..

If the cosmological constant is not zero, the Einstein eld equations in this case require that (a) = 2 /2 (b) = 4 /2

FIGURE 22.9 Impact of 1.2 oz. base copper on the aspect ratio of a 50 m via. (Courtesy of Vantico.)

TABLE 22.3 Utilization of Unclad Dielectrics by Key Market Segments4 Chip package substrates HDI penetration Line/space and via diameter (year 2000) Use of unreinforced dielectrics Use of unclad dielectrics

22.5.1.3 Clad versus Unclad Dielectric Materials. Table 22.3 compares the utilization of clad versus unclad dielectric materials as circuit geometry shrinks. This table shows that as the technology requirements get tougher, the trend toward using unclad dielectrics increases. As line and space requirements get denser, and via diameters get smaller, requirements for chip package substrates to use unclad or thin copper dielectrics increase. In the case of mobile phones and other portable applications, for example, it is foreseen that by the year 2005 lines and spaces will be down to 50 to 75 m, respectively, and via sizes to 50 m, with a subsequent high usage of unclad material. 22.5.2 Examples of HDI Microvia Organic Substrates From a mechanical standpoint, materials may be grouped as reinforced and nonreinforced laminates and prepregs, as in Fig. 22.8. Reinforced materials are generally better in dimensional stability, lower in coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), and less sensitive to thermal cracking, whereas nonreinforced materials often have a lower dielectric constant (Dk) and may be photoimageable. This can be seen in Fig. 22.10, which shows the Dj versus Dk (at 1 MHz) of various resins and reinforcements.

FIGURE 22.10 Dielectric options of resins and reinforcements by dissipation factor (Dj) versus dielectric constant (Dk). (Source: Holden Consulting.)

22521 Nonreinforced Dielectric Materials Nonreinforced dielectric materials include resin-coated copper foils, unclad photoimageable dielectric materials, and non-photoimageable dielectric materials 225211 Resin-Coated Copper Foils Resin-coated foils are the most common materials used for build-up multilayer microvia applications Many product variations are available and fit well within the existing multilayer-manufacturing infrastructure Epoxy-based coated foils are the most common and have performance properties similar to FR-4 but with no glass reinforcement Peel strengths, thermal performance, and electrical properties are excellent A variety of other resin systems are also being developed and starting to be used for coated foil build-up applications Resin-coated foils come in two general types with either one or two resin layers One-pass coated foils have a single B-stage layer designed to flow, fill, and provide thickness control at the same time.

Two-pass coated foils have a C-stage resin layer adjacent to the foil and a B-stage layer for flow and fill The fully cured C-stage layer acts as a stop during the lamination process, typically enabling better thickness control Resincoated foils are available in a variety of thicknesses, yielding between 10 mil (25 micron) and 30 mil (76 micron) thick, finished dielectric layers Copper foils most commonly used are 1/2 oz (18 micron) and 3/8 oz (1334 micron), but there is substantial interest in thinner copper foils for improved laser efficiency and better fine-line circuitry definition 225212 Other Resins Since build-up technology is still in its relative infancy but evolving rapidly, many different and diverse approaches are being investigated for the resins used and variations on the via-formation process.